AP Human Geography Part 1, Units 1-3:
***PLEASE READ: Hmm, you’re stuck in a pickle, aren’t you? You didn’t get a study guide from your teacher or do not have access to resources such as the “Premium AP Human Geography”, or “Barron’s AP Human Geography”? You aren’t interested in or do not have the time to sit through the long youtube videos provided by the CollegeBoard? Do you need a more interesting or visual approach to the subject to motivate you to study more about the subject? Well you’re in luck. My middle name is, “I gotchu”, and I am lucky enough to have all of the resources mentioned above, and as a sophom*ore, I indeed have an A in the class. This can be my qualification that certifies this quality/validity of my study guide, which contains the information that I have literally highlighted from thick study books prescribed from the best revision companies, as well as notes I had taken from class. I won’t be using the study-guide during the AP Test however, because I do not believe in open-note exams. I will be using this guide to reinforce ideas into my mind and prepare for the exam, and so can you. As the AP Human Geography Exam of 2020 is approaching on May 12, 2020 which is less than a week, it is important that everybody has access to materials like these so as to promote equal competition, and reduce the necessity of forms of academic dishonesty such as cheating. 2020’s AP Examination should be taken and prepared for with the same seriousness as the others. During this unprecedented online AP Exam for millions of people, the best I can do is to help people who are not receiving adequate teaching/revision of the Exam’s units from home. I am likely making a public guide for AP Microeconomics as well; let me know via email, etc The motto of this packet is: “COVID-19 is not an excuse for a low AP score!”. You are welcome and encouraged to write comments on @brownskinlemonoverice ’s page of TikTok, or to my email address, and these comments can be anything relevant such as compliments, requests on my FRQ responses and more in-depth teaching on a difficult matter(these requests may be answered by me through Instagram Stories @rishavrk4, email, a TikTok post, or Google Doc) criticism(Make it harsh or constructive; I am geared for both!), and you can also let me know if this guide as a whole(Parts I and II) have helped you prepare in advance of or even during this open-note AP Exam!
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Rishav R.
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Unit 1: Thinking Geographically(pages 1 - 18)
When you see the word, “space” in this course of APHG, it doesn’t refer to the ‘great big vacuum’ where Star Wars takes place. Oh and by the way, Star Wars is inaccurate because there aren’t
sounds in vacuums, and thus all the lasers and such should be muted in movies to create a more realistic portrayal. It izz what it izz..
Space is the gap or interval between two places or objects on the surface of Earth. Activity Space is the area wherein an activity occurs on a daily basis. Due to the pandemic, an example of an activity space are hospitals(and probably beaches if you are from Florida/Georgia); however, due to the nationwide lockdown in the U.S, many spaces which were previous activity spaces are at the moment no longer activity spaces. Think of some of the airports; how bout most/all of the movie theaters, parks, public gyms, natatoriums(public swimming pools) and haircut salons as examples.
Place, a less abstract concept, is an area of bounded space of some human importance. Think of it of any location of Earth, such as a desert or the ocean.
Toponyms are place names. For example: “Wisconsin”, “London”, “Sunderland”, “Chicago”, “Denver”,“Orlando”, “Malibu”, “Vancouver”,
“Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch (“Llanfair PG” for short; this is the world’s longest town name)”, etc.
These names can sometimes reveal the historical, physical, or cultural connection/importance of a region. For an example of the physical/connection, take Green Bay for example(the “Bay” part gives it away).
A scale is the relationship of an object or place to the Earth. In geography, there are two types of scales. One is the scale of analysis, less commonly referred to as level of aggregation. If you didn’t understand this concept when you were being taught this in class during the first few weeks of school for some reason, no worries. I gotchu.
Levels of aggregation or Scales of Analysis can be local/county, regional, state/national, continental, or world. You can view a map of Walt Disney World(or Walt Disney Land for you Californians) and this would be considered a local scale. Similarly, a map of the 50 states is considered national. However, if data is being represented on the map from states in a map of a country, the scale of analysis is State(upper photo below). Similarly, if data is being represented from countries in an international map, the scale of analysis is National(bottom photo below).
The other type of scale is map scale. This signifies the relationship between a measurement on the map compared to the corresponding distance reflected on the map. For example, if you take the map of Texas for example, one centimeter on the surface of the map would definitely not measure one centimeter in real life. Heck, it may even measure the distance between several counties! I haven’t tried it myself.
There are two further categories of these map scales. A large scale map is a map which is more in detail than a small scale map, and a large scale map shows a smaller area. For example, if 1 cm. represents 50,000 cm in real life, the map is a large scale If 1 cm. Corresponds to a much larger distance in real life(such as a million centimeters, it is a small scale map. The key to crack this is by knowing the ratio which is significantly smaller(1 is to 1,000,000) is a small scale map and vice-versa. Thus, if the ratio is only 1 is to 100,000, even though this is a small number(1/100,000), for maps it is actually large scale and considered a large ratio.
If you want a more reliable method in determining whether a map scale is large or small, consider 1:250,000 as the break point, or the transition between large-scale and small-scale. If it is 1:250,001 it would be considered small-scale, and if it is 1:249,999 it is large-scale. The AP Exam would never ask you what type of map scale 1:250,000. It is like the AP Calculus Exam asking you, “Is zero positive or negative?”.
Regions:
There are three types of regions in AP Human Geography, and keep in mind that this is a very important thing to learn as it is highly speculated to come in the exam. However, that doesn’t mean that you shouldn’t learn the other materials as well.
There are formal(or uniform) regions, vernacular(or perceptual) regions, and functional(or nodal) regions.
A uniform region is an area of bounded space that possesses a hom*ogeneous characteristic(or more than one characteristics). This characteristic can be as simple as a language, and the uniform region could be a linguistic region. A real-world example of that the U.S and U.K are in the same linguistic region as they both predominantly speak English. Another example is the U.S South was uniform in the characteristic of slavery during the 1800s. A formal region is one with formal political borders/boundaries. An example of this is any political division you can think of. For example: Wyoming, the Dakotas, Seattle, Oregon, Boston, etc. A stateless nation(Term is present in Part II of this review), on the contrary, is not a formal region as it consists of people who are displaced around several states although they do not have their state(i.e the Kurds; more in depth in Unit IV). Even though formal and uniform regions are pretty distinct, several people group them as the same thing which isn’t advisable at all(Use the appropriate term to describe a concept; do not necessarily use both the terms, “formal region” and “uniform region” to describe a region. Understand what I mean?).
A functional(or nodal) region is an area which has a central place or node which is the focal point of the region surrounding it. An example is a market area. My APHG teacher had assigned my class note sheets on units VI, VII, and VIII(during virtual classes, sponsored by COVID-19), which aren’t on the exam but they went more on-depth on market areas. To summarize the concept/term of a market area, think of the market as a shop such as Golden Corral. Let’s say people are willing to travel 40 miles at maximum to shop at a Golden Corral. The 40 miles is known as the “range”(a term from Unit VII, which won’t be covered in this review because it isn’t on the exam) of the market. From this information, we can place Golden Corral as the central place or node, and draw the range as a radius around the node. This circular region is a functional region, as it shows an area that is centered on a node. Another example is the fanbase of an NBA/NFL team.
A vernacular(or perceptual) region is the third broad type of region(there are also smaller divisions of regions, such as climatic/environmental/cultural, etc. These types of regions likely wouldn’t be prevalent on the AP Exam however.) which signify regions that are based on mental maps and perception. An example of a Vernacular Region is the “American South”, or “Dixie Region”. Some people define it as the areas where people have “Southern Accents”, others define it as the areas where there are predominantly Southern Baptist Churches, and some
others even define it by the predominant locations of country music bands or fans. Regions such as “Midwest”, are actually vernacular, as the states in these regions aren’t fixed; different people have different mental maps and perceptions of the regions of U.S. Also, remember(for the sake of general knowledge, not for the exam) that time zone regions are different from regions such as the “Midatlantic”, and the “Southwest”, etc.
Below are 3 maps of a few different people’s different perceptions on the location and size of U.S regions.
Types of Location, Site and Situation:
Locations are the “Where” of Human Geography. There are two types of locations: Relative Location and Absolute Location.
Relative Location is the position of a point or place on a map relative to a known place/geographic feature nearby or in its surroundings. An example is a person from Reno, Nevada telling another person who is less geographically inclined that he is from a “place by Las Vegas”. Another example which expresses relative location is when someone in Kolkata, India tells a foreigner that he lives near the Ganga River in the East Coast of India. This way, absolute location isn’t being portrayed, however the location in respect to another location(e.g “by Las Vegas”), or geographical feature(e.g “near the Ganga Basin…”) is being said. 
Ganga River in Calcutta(or Kolkata), India Absolute Location is the exact position of an area or place or point on a map, and the most common way to calculate the exact position on Earth is by using coordinates derived from lines of latitude and longitude. An example of absolute location is saying that one is located at 32 degrees 53 minutes and 23 seconds North and 77 degrees 0 minutes and 32 seconds West. More on coordinates like these are presented later in another section within the same chapter in this guide.
There are also two locational concepts known as site & situation, which you may have noticed in the heading of this section.
Site refers to the physical characteristics of a place. For example, Texas is a very flat state due to the land having quite hom*ogeneity in the altitude above sea level.
Situation refers to a place’s interrelatedness with another. In other words, it answers the question, “How is this place related to other places.
Distance, Density, and Diffusion:
As you may know, distance is the measure of space between two objects or phenomena. Just like location, there are two broad categories of distance. There is absolute distance and relative distance.
Absolute and relative should be known adjectives by now, if you are studying in order from the beginning of Unit 1 onwards. Absolute distance is the exact measure of space from one location and another.
Relative distance is the amount of distance one is felt to have covered up given the time taken to cover it. As a result of space-time compression, relative distance is much smaller than it once was.
Space-time compression is a concept that describes the shortness of time needed nowadays(and in the future) to cover the same amount of distance or travel over the same space. Space-time compression is the result of increased and enhanced technologies in transportation such as the automobile, and the aircraft. Even the Internet is a medium that somewhat demonstrates space-time compression as people from physically distant locations are more interactive and are virtually much closer.
Get it? Planes, Trains and Automobiles
Types of Diffusion(just as important as section, “Types of Regions”, which is three sections above this)
The three types of diffusion are Relocation, Expansion, Contagious, Stimulus, Hierarchical, and Reverse-Hierarchical Diffusion.
Relocation diffusion is the spread of an idea/concept/practice that involves physical movement from one place to another. An example of this is missionaries travelling to other countries and “advertising their religion” in hopes of seeking converts. Often, relocation diffusion involves a crossing of a significant physical barrier, such as an ocean, desert, or mountain, whether it is by foot or by airplane.
Expansion diffusion is the diffusion of an idea/concept/practice from a point of origin towards locations in all directions outside this point of origin. The origin can be thought of as the center of diffusion, although this isn’t a “formal geographic term”.
Contagious diffusion is the diffusion of an idea/concept/practice that is either rapid/unpredictable, and/or begins at a point of origin and then moves outward to locations in a certain direction and affects all the regions in that direction. An example of contagious diffusion is COVID-19, which is much more contagious than the common flu, and as asymptomatic patients from China, travelled to the U.S and Europe, there became a chain of more unaffected people in these countries which later diffused contagiously and rapidly. Fast forward to today, and now the U.S is unfortunately Number 1 in the most infected COVID-19 nation in the world! Well, on the bright side, it does have the highest number of Coronavirus survivors in the world which is good.
Covid-19 is more contagious than Ebola and H1N1! Stay home folks
Stimulus diffusion involves the spread of a general underlying principle that stimulates the creation of new products and ideas. For example, McDonalds(a transnational company) has similar food choices internationally, however each country has its own variety of ingredients and styles on items such as fries and burgers. The U.S McDonald’s is the ‘default style/concept’ which diffused through stimulus diffusion internationally. Another form of stimulus diffusion is when the rise of vegan and vegetarian eating habits in the demographic of a market area stimulates restaurants to offer more vegetarian dishes(hence, new products).
Hierarchical diffusion is the diffusion of an idea/concept/practice from higher levels of power to lower levels of power. For example, if Christiano Ronaldo or Lionel Messi were to do a soccer skill that seemed unique and “possible enough” to try for a high school soccer player, then it may cause high schoolers to try the same skills. Thus, the practice diffused from higher levels of power(world-class professional soccer players) to lower-levels of power(high schooler soccer athletes). Reverse-Hierarchical is similar to Hierarchical diffusion, except that it is the opposite: from lower-levels of power to higher-levels of power. An example of this is the concept of selfies. Because selfies were so popular in 2010, the “iPhone company” Apple had released their first phone with a front-facing camera. This case-study is interesting and unique because it actually demonstrates two types of diffusion: both reverse-hierarchical and stimulus diffusion(because the popularity of the selfie stimulated Apple to make a new product that “adjusted” to this popularity).
Lines of Latitude and Longitude, as Promised:
Lines of Latitude are imaginary lines drawn around the Earth(or across the Earth, if a map is used), that signify how “North or South” the position of a place on Earth. This is in respect to the Equator, which is the break point of North and South, and is exactly along the zero degrees latitude line. These lines are parallel to each other, and are also referred to as parallels. 
Lines of Longitude are similar to lines of latitude in the sense that in combination with lines of latitude they can lead to finding the absolute location of a place. These imaginary lines run from north to south, and measure “how West of East” a place is with respect to the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is exactly along the zero degree longitude line.
Every place on Earth has a unique absolute location, whether it is by a few/lot of degrees, minutes, or seconds. Absolute locations can be uncovered by coordinates that are derived from the intersection of lines of longitude and longitude.
A wise man once told me that an easy way to memorize what latitude and longitude look like and measure is to think of it like this: the word “latitude” has “lat” in the beginning. “Lat” rhymes with “fat”, and “fat is horizontal. Thus, lines of latitude are horizontal and measure the extent of North and South. If this were the case, then by the logical process of elimination(or “POE”), lines of longitude are vertical and measure the extent of West and South.
There! It’s that easy!
Map Projections and Distortion(common in past FRQs):
As you already know, the Earth is spherical. If you are a member of the Flat-Earth Society, spoiler alert: the Earth is factually a sphere. And there are a number of proofs of this, such as the difference in time throughout the world as well as the satellite images; if you still aren’t convinced, just assume that the Earth is spherical if you want a chance at understanding the concept of distortion . I am not a believer of the Earth being flat, but I am well aware there would be several flat-Earthers using this study guide, and I just want to acknowledge you, not dismiss you! I’m just giving you guys a food for thought: If the Earth was flat, then how come history’s greatest cartographers(people who draw maps as a profession; it was a much more common job in previous centuries) and artists have never constructed a map of Earth without a trace of distortion?
Anyways, let's go back to the topic. Distortion is the alteration of the shape/size of an object, as compared to its original shape or size. As human geographers agree that the Earth is a sphere, they are also aware that when projecting an image of the world on a flat piece of paper will definitely cause distortion, be it in size, shape, or a little bit of both. Although globes fix the issue
of distortion because they represent the shape of the Earth as it really is, APHG never really talks about globes in its curriculum. In fact, the subject goes more in-depth on different maps drawn by different cartographers and asks students questions regarding the identification of the map/projection, the identification of the cartographer, and then asks us to point out the distortion in more detail. So let’s begin learning that then..
Equal-area projection:
These projections aim to maintain the relative size of the polygons of the countries on the map, with the cost of the shapes of the polygon. Lambert’s map(below) is an equal-area projection, and if asked to point out an example of the distortion, respond by writing/typing that Northern Canadian Islands are squished more than they are in real life.
Conformal projection:
These projections aim to maintain the shape of the polygons of the countries on the map, with the cost of unintentionally distorting the relative size of the countries. This can be seen in Mercator’s map, and a clear example of this is Greenland: although the shape is preserved, Greenland is drawn larger than South America on the map, which is very unnatural considering its real relative size to South America on Earth.
Other:
Some map-projections, which aren’t Lambert’s map or Mercator’s map of-course, aim to balance area and size by distorting a little bit of both. Examples of map-projections that do this
are: Goode’s hom*olosine map(upper photo below) & Robinson’s map(bottom photo below). Remember Goode’s hom*olosine map by imagining the projection as an orange peel. 
A third measure of accuracy is relative distance on a map, which can also gets distorted on certain maps, although it is adequate enough to learn(according to Princeton Review’s, 460-paged ‘AP Human Geography PREMIUM’ book) just the “main” two aspects of distortion for the Exam, which are based on area preservation and shape preservation. Core, Semi-Periphery, & Periphery Model, designed by Immanuel Wallerstein: 
The Core consists of richer and more developed countries that have economies that are more inclined towards the service-sector(or tertiary sector), and most of the GDP(Gross Domestic Product) comes from services such as business and consumer services. Semi-Periphery has countries that are predominantly in the manufacturing sector(or the secondary economic sector). Peripheral Countries are predominantly in the primary economic sector, which is dominantly in the extraction of resources sector. This includes mining and agriculture. There are three sectors in the formal economy, and there are also two subdivisions within the tertiary/service-sector. This is something which some teachers may forget to teach their pupils. It is the quaternary and quinary sector. The quaternary sector consists of knowledge-oriented professions such as accountants, economists, geographers, teachers, doctors, etc. The quinary
sector consists of professions that make high-level decisions such as CEOs, high-level governmental officials, Presidents(company and governmental), etc.
The Core, Periphery, and Semi-Periphery are all interdependent on one another. An example of this relationship is Apple. Apple’s iPhone battery comes from the element Cobalt, which is mined in the Democratic Republic of Congo. This process is controversial as actually consists of a lot of child labor, low pay, and unsafe working conditions. All the raw materials are then transported to China, and become assembled into iPhones. These finished products then make their way to the U.S(the country of the Apple Headquarters).
Mining for Cobalt and other raw necessary materials in D.R of Congo
China Manufacturing of Raw Materials into iPhones GIS and Remote Sensing:
GIS stands for Geographic Information Systems, and became practical with the onset of desktop computers in the 1970s.
GIS incorporates one or more layers or strata of data(of a specific that can be placed on a geographical map for the sake of spatial analysis.
Here’s an application of GIS which can not only enhance your understanding of the concept, but can also teach you about its importance and give you ideas to respond to an FRQ question regarding an application of GIS, etc.
In 2005, Utah Valley University students used GIS for analyzing the relationship between the personal wealth and the danger of an earthquake. This analysis was based on Provo, Nevada. One data layer numerically presented the housing values, which is a good factor in indicating personal wealth most of the time. The next best alternative is to just survey thousands of people about their income range, but that would seem really tedious and some people may not even respond. Anyways, these students also added another data layer which had numbers that represented earthquake danger. The numbers were determined by several factors of Earthquake Danger such as: landslide potential(can be reworded as “chance of landslide”), ground shaking potential, etc. As you can see, both of these data layers were based on quantitative(numeric) data.
The conclusion made after placing the two layers together was that the people who stayed in housing/shelter with middle-income housing values(and who were predicted financially as “average wealth” or “middle class” people) had a risk of being subject to greater earthquake danger than people with other housing values.
Remote Sensing: The acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without physically travelling there. If there is popular demand(let me know if you are willing), I will release the document of me answering FRQ questions from my practice resources regarding remote sensing, and many other topics! The FRQ responses of mine can indeed help you prepare for the Exam as well as understanding the material and the topics.
An interesting example of remote-sensing(which is not related to human geography whatsoever) is the use of satellites and space probes on semi-distant planets such as Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, etc, to acquire information regarding atmospheric conditions, climate, chemical composition, presence of life, etc. And this is all done without having any humans actually having to travel to these distant planets! Remote-sensing definitely saves time, energy, and money(suppose the money saved by not spending capital on potential salaries of astronauts who would be sent to study these planets, by investing in remote sensing technology such as self-automated satellite drones and ground rovers/probes).
There are many types of data that remote-sensing technology can acquire. There is infrared satellite imagery that can be used to assess the health of vegetation on the Earth’s surface. This information can then be applied to predict yield and determine whether or not the profit is maximized(more on market price and competitive markets are in the second part of the AP Microeconomics Exam Note-Taking Study guide) by selling the quantity of yield at the market
price of the food crop. Another type of data is sonar, which involves seismographs detecting movement underground and quite important applications that will be released if requested(via TikTok comments, Instagram DMs, or Email).
Unit 2: Population and Migration Patterns and Processes(pages 18 - )
In this unit, we are introduced to a few additional geographical models out of the several significant geographical models, which are necessary to understand fully in order to have a scope of receiving a high score on the AP Human Geography Exam. These models are the Demographic Transition Model, Malthusian Model, Population Pyramids, and last but not least the Epidemiological Model. These models are very cool, understandable, and easy to learn as they require very little memorization. But before that, there are basics to learn through to build the foundation for learning about the models.
Population Statistics:
Crude Birth Rate(CBR) is the number of live births out of 1,000 people in a population within a year. For instance, if Japan has 92,500 births in a year(which is very low compared to its population) and it’s population is around 126.5M, then Japan would have a CBR of 7.31 per 1,000 people. You’re right, I said that math was a thing of Unit 1(with the map scales and ratios), but it does have a little prevalence here as well.
Similarly,
Crude Death Rate(CDR) is the number of deaths out of 1,000 people in a population within a year.
Terrible meme I know
NIR(Natural Increase Rate), or RNI(Rate of Natural Increase) is simply the difference between CBR and CDR. If the CBR is between 18 and 50, it is considered high. If it is between 8 and 17, it is considered low. A CBR above 50 or below 8 is either very rare, or doesn't exist in any country.
NIR is calculated like this: (CBR - CDR)/10 %
It is out of 10 because CBR and CDR are out of 1000. In other words, NIR is basically the percent value of CBR minus the percent value of CDR.
NIR measures the percentage rate of increase/decrease(if value is negative) of the population. In other words, it is the percent change in population.
‘Natural’ is a limitation, no?:
The terms NIR and RNI are synonymous and they both consist of the word ‘natural’. One might ask, “Why though?”. Well, this is simply because the rate of natural increase doesn’t take into account population growth by migration(the second essential topic of the chapter).
For example, Bolivia has an NIR of 1.56%. At this constant rate, the population would double in around 45 years. This is known as doubling time. Doubling However, in 45 years Bolivia is projected to go from 11M people to 18M people, and not 22M people(the double of the population). This is because of the emigration rates it experiences. Emigration is the movement out of a country. Also, it is very unlikely for any country to maintain the same NIR for several
years, especially as they progress through the Demographic Transition Model(more in-depth explanation of the ‘DTM’ coming soon in this Review).
To account for(or “fix”) this limitation, there has been a formula which more accurately calculates the rate of population growth(and the nation’s population at the onset and ending of the year) and includes both net migration rate as well as RNI. The formula is below: {(CBR - CDR) + NMR}/10
NMR stands for “Net Migration”, and can be found by calculating the difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants per 1,000 people in a population.
If one simply wants to find the change in population and not the percentage change, he/she can do this.
Suppose the population of Crenshaw, California is 10,000. If it has a CBR of 13 and a CDR of 10(who knows how high this number can get due to COVID-19 this year), then the total number of births and deaths are 130 and 100 respectively. Thus, the change in natural(“natural” is always based on birth and death numbers, and does not take into account immigration/emigration) population is 30. Then, let us suppose that it’s total number of immigrants is 1450 and emigrants is 990. The net migration is 460. Thus, the population will increase by (460 + 30), which brings the population to 10,490. You see, the moral of this section is that imigration and emigration can have a larger impact on the population than to CBR and CDR.
Dependency Ratio & Total Fertility Rate:
The dependency ratio is the number of people above 65 and below 15 divided by the number of people in the working age cohort between ages 15 and 65. This is the ‘general’ and ‘default’ dependency ratio.
Youth Dependency Ratio is just the number of people below the age of 15 divided by the number of people in the working age. Countries such as Africa and Bangladesh, where birth rates are higher than the worldwide average, have high youth dependency ratios. On the other hand, Elderly Dependency Ratio is the number of people above the age of 65, which is
considered the age of retirement for many countries, divided by the number of people in the working age. You see how these dependency ratios are interrelated? Countries like Japan and Germany, where life expectancies are high and birth rates are low, have high elderly dependency ratios. They both involve a ratio of something to the number of people in the working age.
Why compare it to the working age, and why use the term, ‘dependency’ in it? Well this is because people who are assumed to be retired are dependent on the working age people who pay taxes that support these people who don’t receive the same level of income as they do(pensions are much less reliable compared to a worker’s salary). Kids and ‘early teens’ are also not in the working age and thus workers have to pay taxes to support public school(that is, if their children attend a public school of-course) and parents of these age groups are in the working age and have to support their kids financially by spending money, time, and energy on raising their kids and providing them with necessities. Thus, kids and retirees alike are both dependent on their working age counterparts of society.
Total Fertility Rate(TFR) is the number of children born divided by the number of women aged 15 to 45. TFR is not an annual statistic like RNI or NIR; it is a snapshot of fertility over the past thirty years.
Replacement level is a level of TFR which is equal to 2.1, and if a country exhibits this value, then the speed of population growth slows down. Obviously, when the RNI is zero, population growth stays static. When a country hits the replacement level, it is figuratively hitting the breaks of the car of population growth and is deaccelerating.
Demographic Transition Model:
Above is a picture of the DTM I acquired from the Internet. KEEP IN MIND, there is no Stage 1 country as of now, so if a stimulus shows a picture of a developing country such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and the question asks you to identify its stage, the answer would likely be Stage 2. There is no neutral break point in developmental status in the DTM; in other words, there isn’t a stage on the DTM which applies to countries which are neither developed nor developing. Until Stage 3, there are developing countries and at Stage 4 and 5 there are developed countries. These stages are integers, and there isn’t a stage 4.5. Stage 5 is evidently the maximum.
Here are up to-date examples of different countries in a different stages of the DTM: Stage 1: none
Stage 2: Sudan, Nigeria, Nepal
Stage 3: Mexico, China, India
Stage 4: USA, South Korea, Canada
Stage 5: Japan, Croatia, Portugal
Countries can be in the same stage but along different points within the curve of the model. Malthusian Theory:
Thomas Malthus, a famous logical pessimist, published a book in which he stated that the global population would expand to a point where it would not be able to feed the world’s entire population. This would be known as the Malthusian Catastrophe. He noted that this would happen before the 1900s, as population(J-curve) increases exponentially and food increases arithmetically. This was the basis of his Malthusian Model, which is depicted below. 
Now, you may be wondering if this has happened yet. The answer is no. This had been due to the increased agricultural production as a result of the Green Revolution(Unit V term), which is presented in more detail in Part II. Neo-Malthusians, who are more recent theorists that believe Thomas Malthus’ warning, believe that this catastrophe will still occur even if it didn’t before the 1900s. They have three reasons for this:
Agricultural Sustainability: When the world reaches 10 billion people, there may be problems keeping up with food demand. Already many regions around the world are victims of significant ecological problems such as soil nutrients and soil salinization. If too many food-growing areas are damaged, would the world have to become non-vegetarian? Would food availability be able to sustain and support the human population despite the unsustainability of many former agricultural regions?
Increasing Demand Per-Capita: Globally, the amount of food consumed per person is rising, because as a country shifts from being a Third World Country to being a First World Country, average food consumption increases by around eight times. As these Third World Countries become more developed and as Third World citizens migrate to First World Countries, their increased demand for food and other products can make food consumption override food
production, which is bad.
Natural Resource Depletion: Theorists such as Paul Ehrlich have warned the human race that overconsumption of resources in general, such as timber, minerals, nonrenewable energy sources, etc, questions the practice of
sustainability. Can a world with 10000000000 people feed and house everyone? Can the same world also heat all houses, or do they not have enough fuel to do so? If not, then the best action is to conserve resources until we can find
substitutes and/or if there becomes a technological breakthrough that allows us to easily obtain resources(such as a facilitated ability to mine metals and other elements from asteroids and comets. Elon Musk predicted that companies/people who will do this will become trillionaires by selling rare metals to consumers on Earth.). Also, it is advisable from a Malthusian standpoint to rely more on renewable and eco-friendly energy sources such as solar energy and electrical energy rather than energy obtained from burning fossil fuels, etc.
An important food for thought and supplement for your FRQ response is this: the current and future people on Earth NEED to consider is that if we do not conserve resources then they could be depleted before we have the chance to save them.
Shortage and famine due to Coronavirus in some Costcos.
Population Pyramids:
Keep in mind that in population pyramids the male population is represented in the left and female in the right(I don’t know where transgender populations are placed. Beats me. I guess they just pick a side, or aren’t even included at all.). The x-axis portrays the percentage or number of the population, and the y-axis gives the different age groups/cohorts. Below are population pyramids/structures that represent countries of each of the five stages on the DTM:
These are general shapes representative of each of the stages. In a more detailed population pyramid, one can observe differences in sizes of population between different age-cohorts. Baby booms are significant bulges in the population pyramid’s structure and Population busts are significant indentations in the population pyramid.
Just to make it clear, Boomers are people who are born between 1946 and 1964(and aren’t the ones responsible for the boom; instead, they are the products of the boom). These age cohorts are after WWII, and in general, populations tend to have a higher fertility rate after a major war as most men and their wives have been separated due to their different roles during the war. Thus, population booms take place as a result. This “Ok Boomer” meme is so unfunny and bland, and portrays ageism, and it's a good thing that meme’s over. I mean, imagine young people in the future creating memes and prejudice against us when we become older. Not so pleasant. 
Population Busts can be seen by the age cohorts that actually fought in the war. In countries like Japan, the fighters of the war are men(basically all armies used to fight with men), and many of these fighters do not return home due to them losing their life. The ones who do come home contribute to the baby boom, and the generation known as “Boomers” is named after them being the babies made in the baby boom.
Another discrepancy that can be seen particularly in the Chinese population pyramid between men and women, that exemplifies a population boom and a bust, could be due to sex preference. Due to the previous one-child policy, couples could only have one offspring. Thus, due to genetic engineering, more couples preferred to have males than females due to economic and cultural reasons. This led to skewed gender ratios and a boom of males as well as a bust of females in the population.
Notice how a lot of age cohorts have more males than females in China’s Population-Pyramid
Population Density:
Arithmetic Density: The number of objects/people/phenomena per unit area of land. Physiologic Density: The number of people per unit area of arable(farmable) land. Agricultural Density: The number of farmers per unit area of arable land. Epidemiological Transition Model(ETM):
The 5 stages of this model are:
Age of Pestilence and Famine: In this stage, infectious diseases are the primary causes of death. Due to a lack of hygiene and sanitation, many people die of infectious diseases and do not reach old age. Accidents with animals while/in attempt of domesticating, as well as attacks from other humans due to famines and food shortages can also lead to death. This stage in the ETM corresponds to Stage 1 of the DTM.
Age of Receding Pandemics: Improvement in medicine, nutrition, and sanitation, as CDR declines. This corresponds to the second stage in the DTM.
Age of Man-Made Diseases: Decrease in deaths from infectious diseases, however there is an increase in the number of deaths that are caused due to old age & cancer, as well as chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, heart-attack, etc. Stage 4 and 5 in DTM.
Age of Delayed Degenerative Disease: Chronic diseases and cancer still exist, however the life expectancy is improved due to medical advancements. Stages 4 and 5 in DTM correspond to Stage 4 of the ETM.
Age of Reemergence of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases: Many developed countries such as the U.S.A, Spain, Italy, the U.K, and Germany are in this stage of the ETM. Infectious diseases that are thought to have been eradicated or controlled have returned, as well as new ones. If countries were to reopen too early from lockdown this year, then the curve would rise up again(or continue on the rise; depends on the situation during the time you are reading this) and COVID-19 would return to our daily lives even though it was thought by political leaders to have been controlled.
The main forces against diseases in the U.S Migration:
Migration is the permanent move or relocation of a person or group of persons from one location to another. Migration can take place internally(interregional migration and intraregional migration) transnationally.
There are two broad types of migration: Forced migration & Voluntary migration. Forced migration occurs when a person is forced to move to another location, and this decision is made with no choice or voluntary action. Examples can be asylum seekers, refugees, deported people, or people who have lost their habitats due to natural disasters such as
tsunami/earthquake/tornado/hurricane. Voluntary migration occurs when a person chooses to move from one location to another. This is usually for the seeking of economic opportunities in the new area. Sometimes, it is even for social reasons: for example, Australian people living in the U.S could relocate back to Australia to hang out with their friends in their original country and even socialize with new people who have similar ethnicity and cultural backgrounds as them.
The different branches of migration are as follows:
Step Migration: Migration that occurs in steps, such as a family moving from a farm to a town to the outskirts of a metropolitan area, to the CBD(downtown area) and finally the suburban region. Intervening obstacles for work may appear in this step-by-step process of migration, subsequently causing a delay in step or a change in step.
Chain Migration: Migration that occurs because of previous family members or friends that have migrated to the same location in the past. For example, Harvey may consider studying at Stanford if one of the schools he has been accepted to is Stanford, and if his parents/friends studied there in the past. Chain migration occurs because the newest migrant opts to follow his/her friend/family’s path.
It can also occur if a friend/family member of a person has encouraged that person to relocate in the same area as him/her and this caused the person to relocate to that area and led to him/her also telling others in the original country to live to move to his/her new country.
The amazing Stanford University landscape under a purple sky
Life-course changes: Major migration occurs due to changes that take place over the duration of one’s life, if you think about it. These include going to a college that is distant from home, looking for a better job, and retiring somewhere(speaking of retirement, Sun City, Arizona has been a long time retirement destination for older Americans).
Push/Pull Factors of Migration:
There are several factors that come into play in emigration and immigration from/to a country. Push factors are the factors that are unfavorable push people away. Similarly, the opposite are pull factors, which are the factors responsible for attracting people to the place. Examples of push factors are lack of development, increased land costs and armed conflicts.
In NICS(newly industrialized countries; note that China isn’t an example of a NIC), higher costs of land force farmers to sell their land as they make more money by doing that rather than using the land for an entire growing season and sell the crops after paying such high costs of the land rent. Often, these former farmers become migrants that are pushed out of their old locations(countryside, with lots of arable land), and move to cities. If they are not qualified for jobs due to a lack of educational background, they usually arrive homeless or live in squatter settlements(Areas that have improvised buildings made of plywood, cardboard, and plastic, and house the poor. People in squatter settlements do not own the land, and they are too poor to rent a house in the city although they do not desire the status of homelessness.) in developing countries.
Pull factors can be in the form of services and job-opportunities. For example, farmers only make money when they sell their crops after harvest, at the end of their growing season. A regular paycheck that can be obtained from working in a job. For an example that exemplifies the pull-force of services is the prevalence of entertainment, food, movie theaters, anad festivals in urban areas that attract migrants from rural areas(speaking of which, China has the largest migration from rural-to-urban in the world).
Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes (pages - )
Culture is the shared experience, traits, and activities of a group of people who have a common heritage as a centripetal force. There are around 10 broad categories that are related to the expression of culture, and here are seven examples of these(in no particular order): music, sports, film and television, food, land usage, religion, & language.
Elite is a Spanish Netflix Series, which reflects Spanish culture and norms, as well as entertainment for anyone worldwide. Take it from me, it's an amazing show
Cultural synthesis, also known as cultural syncretism, is the blending together of two or more cultural influences.
The “profile picture” or outline of Sikhism, a syncretic religion that combines some Islamic and some Hindu practices, while leaving out unfavorable parts such as the Caste System in Hindu, etc.
Let’s now examine country music as a culture, and explore its origins a little in-depth. One can find a culmination of influences from the Scots-Irish, the Germans, the African American immigrants and slaves in the American South, etc. The mixture of musical sounds, instruments, cabulary, and rhythms came together from these cultural groups and created another style/genre of music, as well as the development of others such as jazz, the blues, and rock and roll later in time.
Architecture:
There are two broad types of architecture, which have many styles(and a few subcategories)within them. These two broader types of architecture are classified modern and contemporary.
Modern architecture is a term that represents architecture developed in the 20th century, which also happens to incorporate more “geometric forms”(less curvature, if any) and acquires a blocky rectilinear figure. An example is the steel and glass skyscrapers built in the 1970s and 1980s. Contemporary architecture includes architecture which greatly incorporates the element of curvature.
An expensive and amazing looking house that reflects Modern Architecture
Contemporary architecture, as a whole, utilizes green technologies such as solar panels, etc, and also uses nontraditional materials such as metal sheeting on the exterior. A subcategory within contemporary architecture is postmodern architecture. This category accepts buildings that abandon the use of blocky rectilinear shape and are instead in favor of wavy, crystalline, bending shapes. An example of this is the Walt Disney Theater in Los Angeles(left photo). 2 photos depicting this example of postmodern architecture are pasted below.
Housing Types:
New England housing typically/majorly consists of a small one-story house with roofs of Cape Cod style(edges are equal in height; this is the opposite of Sandbox style) or the irregular roof Sandbox style(a picture is shown below).
Federalist or Geogian Housing refers to housing styles of the late 1700s and early 1800s in Anglo-America. These are generally(or “often”) two- to three-story urban townhomes connected to one another. Architectural elements around windows typically feature Greak and Roman designs and stone carvings. These are symmetrical homes with central doorways and equal number of windows on each side of the house. A real-world example of a building which follows this architectural style is the Royal Mint of Spain(For all my La Casa de Papel or Money Heist lovers, this reference is for you!) A photograph of the Royal Mint(a building where money is printed for Spain) is shown on the photo on the right).
The I-house style is an architectural style wherein there is a central door with one symmetrical window on each side of the door, and three symmetrical windows on the second floor. As the I-housing style moved westwards, the rectangular shape and symmetry which was previously
present became lost. What gives away an I-house is the presence of a fireplace on each side of the house and an even pitched house(similar to the roof of New England Cape Cod style housing), which is the reason for the chimney on both sides of the house as seen in the photo below. Here is a visual illustration:
Religion:
A very commonly tested topic on AP FRQs, and one which is likely to appear in the virtual AP exam this year(2020) is regarding the various world religions and the architectural forms of their respective places of worship. Remember, architecture and religion both fall under the category of Culture(which is basically the name of the unit), so it is quite important to know the following info.
For Christianity, traditional houses of worship typically include a central steeple or two bell towers which can be viewed from the front of the building. The steeple is especially used in smaller churches(such as the local church), whereas bell towers are found in larger churches and cathedrals. Symbolically, older churches, basilicas, and cathedrals feature a cross-shaped floor plan(as seen on the right photograph).
Hindus, on the other hand, have a more rectangular-shaped side view, and feature one or more towers of carved stone. These towers often have stepped sides(by looking at the photo, you can understand the adjective ‘stepped’ in this context). Below, on the left is a photograph of one of
the many Indian temples that are a little unique in their own way, although share several characteristics. On the right is an image of the largest Hindu temple in the world, which is actually in Cambodia. I can imagine that there are many Indians who don’t know this. I, an Indian, didn’t know this fact myself either until I read about it! This temple is called Angkor Wat, and this piece information can be stated to “polish” an FRQ response if needed/useful. 
For Muslims(people who follow Islam, of course), worship of Allah can be done in mosques, which can be in many forms. The giveaway of a mosque is the presence of one or more minarets, that are the narrow towers pointed upwards. A noteworthy detail to understand about most mosques is that they are built on an angle that places the main prayer towards Mecca! If you don’t understand what is meant by the previous statement, consider this: let Mecca be point M, and the area where the main prayer takes place be point A. If point M is South-West of point A, then point A would be pointed towards M, which would be the holy node(peep Unit 1) of the religion. Here is a photograph of one of the most beautiful mosques in the world: 
For Judaism, there isn’t a common architectural design style to synagogues(bottom photo). The most holy place in Judaism is the Western Wall(upper photo), which is actually next to the Dome of the Rock, a religious site in Jerusalem. Jerusalem is actually the hearth of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, so it isn’t a coincidence that there is a Christian, Jewish(Judaism followers), and Islamic quarter in Jerusalem(the fourth part of this quarter is the Armenian Quarter, although Armenian is a nationality and not a religion).
Mono-Language(one), Multi-Lingual(3 or more), and Bilingual(two):
A multilingual society is one where the community of speakers communicate effectively in three or more languages. An example is the Netherlands, where school students not only learn their native tongue Dutch, but also English, French and a little bit of German. Another one, surprisingly enough if you aren’t from California, is that California is a multilingual society. In fact, California has made provisions to provide some services in multiple languages such as Chinese, Spanish, Vietnamese, etc.
Pidgins, Creoles, & Lingua Francas:
A pidgin is a simplified form of a language which consists of basic, but words(like the vocabulary you learn in Spanish 2, etc.) and grammatical structure. There are many many interrelated English-based pidgins, and one example of this can be seen in Western Africa. Countries such as Ghana, Cameroon, and Nigeria speak pidgin English with each other, although English is not their ‘strong language’ or ‘language of tongue’. Obviously, these three countries have different native languages in spite of being in the same continent, so pidgin
English is generally the way to go for basic communication between these countries. A creole is a popularized pidgin. For example: in Haiti,
French Creole(Remember, it is just a pidgin which has been used a lot. This isn’t at all supposed to be an overwhelming term to learn.) is spoken.
As for lingua francas, these are ‘bridge languages’ which fill the previous gap in communication between people of different languages. For example, English, which is special as it is considered as the global lingua franca. Every airline pilot and air traffic controller is mandated to learn English for safety reasons(and not just pidgin English either). English has been dominant for two main reasons:
Colonialism. Every continent in the world has been colonized by former
British and English colonists to an extent, in the past.
2. The Internet is dominated by the English language, and the popular language also dominates the international business world, which contributes to its high prevalence. 
Language Families, Language Groups and Language Subfamilies(remember, they are Lang. Family subdivisions that only apply to the larger language families):
A language family is a collection of languages that are connected by a distant ancestor language. The top five language families(in terms of the number of greatest number of speakers) are ranked below:
Indo-European(2.9B people)
Sino-Tibetan(1.3B people)
Niger-Congo(435M people)
Afro-Asiatic(375M people)
Austronesian(346M people)
*Note that the number of speakers/people of each language family shouldn’t be learnt or memorized, however, due to the 2020 APHG(better than the abbreviation “APHUG” in my opinion) being open-note it wouldn’t hurt to include the number of speakers of a language family if asked to describe a language family in a Free-Response Question, but it is important to NOT DIGRESS in your responses. *
The English Language comes from the Indo-European Language Family. Within this family is the language subfamily known as Germanic subfamily. Language families can be broken into language groups; in other words, language groups are simply divisions of language families(however in this case, because Indo-European is one of the larger language families, it divides language subfamilies into language groups. English comes from the West Germanic language group, and the other languages in this group are German, Dutch, and Afrikaan. Folk Culture vs. Popular Culture:
Folk culture is a form of culture which is diffused through relocation diffusion(peep Unit 1) and is more localized. Examples: Native American music, cultural stories, saris in India, skirts for men in Scotland, etc.
Popular culture(a.k.a ‘Pop culture’) is the opposite, as it is diffused primarily through expansion diffusion(peep Unit 1) and is a form of culture that appears on a more global scale. Examples: Pizza, Soccer, TikTok Trends/viral videos from other countries/parts of the country, jeans, popular music, etc.
Folklore: A component of folk culture which involves songs with lyrics that tie to cultural stories as well as religious tradition within the group. Folklore tends to be “unplugged”, which in other words means “without electronic instruments”.
Anism and More in-depth about Religion:
Anism is the common belief that natural phenomena, inanimate objects, and even landforms have a spiritual being within them(Or they have life, and should be treated like any sentient, living being just like us alive humans.).
Before we study more in-depth about religion, we have to learn two terms that are the two broad categories of religion: universalizing & ethnic.
A universalizing religion is one that seeks to promote the religion by accepting followers worldwide and increase its following. An example is Christianity. Not all Christians are from the hearth of Jerusalem; one can also convert into being a Christian, and that is the biggest giveaway that it is a universalizing religion.
Buddhism is unique, because it is considered ‘universalizing’, however it does not involve the worship of a supreme being or god. Strict AP rubrics might cut off points if one states it as a universalizing religion, because it lacks a fundamental aspect of religion, and the title of ‘philosophy’ is more appropriate. Keep this in mind when constructing your FRQ responses this year.
Buddhist Temple. China, the most non-religious country in the world, happens to have the largest number of Buddhists in the world at over 244M Buddhist followers.
On the other hand, an ethnic religion is one that doesn’t seek followers who are not ethnically related to its heart. An example is Hinduism, which one can only practice(if he/she chooses to, of course) if he/she is born in India.
Hinduism:
The main practice in the doctrine is to work continuously until nirvana(The ultimate state of peace that occurs when the whole cycle of rebirth and “redeath” and rebirth and is over.) is eventually attained.
There is indeed practice of temple-based worship as well as festivals to praise particular supreme gods, such as Ganesha(festival: Ganesha Chathurthi), Shiva(festiva: Maha Shivaratri), Naga(festiva: Naga Panchami).
Type of religion: universalizing.
Different denominations(components of a religion) are often based on a caste system(however this became abolished by India’s government in 1948), where a person is born into a particular social level(lowest being the Untouchables and highest being the Brahams).
The Reincarnation Principle is a common ideal between Sikhism, Jainism, and Hinduism, which states that all souls become reborn and become elevated in each new life due to karma. If he has good karma, then he will exist in a higher
form of life next time, such as a more superior social class within the caste system, etc. Keep in mind that because the caste system is abolished, the caste system is technically no longer involved in the elevation in the new life even though Hindu scriptures and cosmology(a belief in the structure in the universe) state this. A lower form may include a mosquito, a unicellular organism, etc, whereas a higher form can be a cow or elephant(these are sacred and seen as aspects of Mother Goddess Earth.
Islam:
Scripture: The holy book known as the Koran(also spelled “Quran”).
Consists of 2 denominations: Sunni(85%) and Shia(15%).
Indonesia, which has over 225M muslims, is the state(peep Chapter 4, which is either coming soon, or has already been released!) which has the largest number of Muslims.
Jainism:
Scripture is derived from several books known as Agamas.
Doctrine: At the core of religious practice is the complete respect for all animal life, because in every soul is a divine god(extreme animism here). Followers are strict vegetarians and often wear face masks to prevent the inhalation of
insects(in the places where Jainism is practiced(typically in Western India), there tends to be a high concentration of mosquitoes, flies, etc.).
Jainism is considered as a distinct religion, and is not a part of Hinduism, and is not a syncrete religion like Sikhism(Islam+ Hindu).
Christianity:
One must be able to tell apart the general architectural style for the respective denominations of the religion. I hope what is presented below will help.
P.S, the scripture for this religion is the well-known Holy Bible.
Eastern Orthodox
Protestant Church(if you google for interior images of this religious demonination’s architecture, you will find that Hannah Baker’s funeral in Season 2 of the emotional Netflix show 13 Reasons Why took place. If you haven’t watched it yet, then I am legally obliged to state that you must determine yourself whether or not the content is too strong(and whether it is suitable) for you; if you or any person around you needs help, then go to https://13reasonswhy.info, and get the resources needed. Anyways, that’s enough of a digression, so let’s just continue reviewing/taking APHG notes.
Roman Catholic Church
Cultural Regions, and their Fuzzy Borders:
Unlike formal regions(peep Unit I), cultural regions do not have fixed political borders. In fact, it is difficult to tell where one culture ends and another begins. Unlike the ecotone between one biome and another, the transition between one cultural region and another isn’t easily measurable. Cultural regions can also overlap in an irregular manner, and this leads to a smaller impact of borders as compared to formal borders such as the U.S-Mexico border, etc. Also, there tends to be many inconsistencies along the edges of cultural region layers which are added on Earth maps, which contribute to the ‘fuzziness’ of the borders. Cultural regions can depict a region on a map where a centripetal force of language, tradition, food, music, and/or religion is practiced.
Picture the fanbase of Charli D'amelio and Loren Gray mapped(this is not an example of cultural regions, keep in mind). There wouldn’t be 2 giant blobs, but there would also be heavy overlapping as well as shaded regions that are farther away from the major node(for instance, thei Asian fan bases are further than than their predominantly North American fan bases). Heck, there would be many blobs, and thus many boundaries associated. This is much more different than the area around an NFL stadium or NBA court wherein the majority of fans stay.
Cultural Hearth vs. Population Center Case Study: Islam
The cultural hearth of Islam is the region along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia. Muhammed, who is the actual founder of the religion if you didn’t know, was born in the ‘most holy city of Islam’, Mecca. Islam’s second-holy city is Medina, from where Muhammad received a portion of the Quran.
Many Muslims go to pilgrimages to holy cities such as Mecca, as shown in this photo and the photo below.
Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia; it gives so much cool vibes I feel you.
Believe it or not, the Middle East is not a very well-populated area compared to other parts of the Islamic World; Pakistan(160M), India(120M; this is only around 14-15% of India’s entire population however), and Indonesia(210M). You can find around 66% of Muslims outside the region of the hearth of Islam(the hearth is the Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia, while the regio being referred to here is the Middle East). In other words, around two-thirds of the world’s muslims can be found outside the Middle East. Wow!
Cultural Changes Within The Society:
Sequent Occupance is the concept that all the cultural groups that have predominantly occupied an area in the past(or is currently occupying a space) leave an imprint that usually lasts. An example of this is Nigeria. After the nation became sovereign(peep the next unit, which is either in the process of making, or is already on Rishav’s TikTok page, where you can check out for free!) and independent from British colonialism, the Nigerians decided to keep the European architecture even today, however they decided to rename the streets and other toponyms(place names) to Nigerian references(or, you can think of this as Nigerian names). As a result, you can see that modern-day Nigeria exemplifies(gives an example of) sequent occupance of the landscape from it’s former colonists(architecture and buildings)to it’s free Nigerians(toponymy). Another example of sequent occupance can be seen in New York City, which was at one point in time under British rule(toponyms such as “Williamsburg”, “The Burough of the Queens”, etc, were common) and prior to that it was under Dutch rule(toponyms such as “Harlem”, “Stuyvesant”, etc, were present). We mustn’t forget the indigneous people of-course, and we must remember that Native Americans also
populated the shores of New York Harbor, which were rich in oysters and other types of seafood. The Native American imprint can be seen by viewing the large garbage dumps of mainly oyster shells and other artifacts of Native American life that are uncovered. This, along with the signs and buildings of postcolonial and modern American cultural occupants. One can note that one of the largest cultural imprints on NYC(and basically all of what is now the United States of America) is the introduction of English language which previously didn’t exist at all
before colonialism, although it is very prominent now(at the cost of the loss of Native American language). These imprints are like “proofs of existence”, or “effects of existence”. It is much more interesting to think of them like that.
Acculturation: The process of adapting a new culture while still keeping traits of the original culture. Usually, this is a two-way street, involving the swapping of a few traits between the original and the incoming cultural group. Acculturation doesn’t require as much commitment as assimilation.
Assimilation: The “fully submerged” process of adapting a new culture, which includes the dropping of all traits of the original culture completely. This way, the incoming cultural person blends into his/her cultural landscape & surroundings.
A distinct example of assimilation is the policy of “forced assimilation”(I also sensed a bit of deja vu relating to “forced migration”, don’t worry. Oh, was that just me? Ok, moving on.)of Native American population. You may have heard of this policy before in middle school history classes if you are in the U.S, so this may not come to that much of a surprise than it would for others who didn’t learn this yet. Anyways, the government of the U.S forced Native Americans to learn English in government-run schools(“government-run” is practically another word for “public school”), and also insisted that the indigenuous Americans should adopt manners, dress, and culture while also forbidding the “old ways''.
Ethnic Conflicts, and constructing an FRQ on Yugoslavia as a conclusion to Unit III and an introduction To Unit IV:
A map of what was “Yugoslavia” Due to the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the former Yugoslavia was created as a state(remember that Yugoslavia is ‘former’ because it became balkanized; this is a term in the next unit of the Exam). This former country consisted of many ethnic groups such as Serbs, Croats, Slovenians, Bosnian Muslims(ethnic group: Bosinian, & religion of this ethnic group: Muslim/Islamic), Kosovars, and Montenegrins. These ethnic groups were from the modern-day countries of Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Montenegro. The winners of WWI believed that the best plan of action in the Yugoslavian area is to put all of these ethnic groups together in the same state(a.k.a “country” in APHG).
Following the death of Former Yugoslavia’s Communist Leader, Josip Tito, there wasn’t a particular person/group to keep Yugoslavia in control. Tito was a Croat from birth, but he fought alongside the Serbians against the Germans during WWII. This makes Josip Tito a representative of Yugoslavian identity and centripetal forces between ethnic groups, which previously didn’t exist before the 20th century. With no heir to Josip apparent, the people and politicians within the country revitalized their ethnic and religious arguments and grudges. The Croats(one of the ethnic groups) are predominantly Roman Catholic and the Serbs are Eastern Orthodox Christian. Despite their shared language of Serbo-Croatian at the time and their religion of Christianity, these are two separate ethnic groups based on religious traditions. As a result, in 1989, the Croats forced Serbs out of Serbs enclaves in Northern Yugoslavia, and Serbs “returned the force” by forcing Croats to leave Croatian enclaves in the same region. This is an example of ethnic cleansing, which is a geographical phenomenon that describes an ethnic group getting rid of or “cleansing” a group of people of another ethnic group out of a region.
Despite this ethnic conflict being quickly resolved by international diplomacy in 1990(the year after the ethnic cleansing had taken place), fighting and ethnic violence(via execution and more violence as well) had began between the Croats, Serbs, and Bosnians, as these groups had self determination(term in Unit IV, which signifies that ethnic groups feel the urge to govern themselves) in parts of the mountainous country of Yugoslavia. The ethnic cleansing had taken place in hopes of creating a more hom*ogenous ethnic landscape. This ethnic conflict led to casualties of many people of all sides of the ethnic ‘battle’.
In late 2008 Radovan Karadzic, a Serb leader, was charged for his crimes against humanity and was arrested after living several years with a bearded disguise as a herbal medicine practitioner in Belgrade. He did what most fugitives would do; hide. He was charged guilty with ordering the
genocide of Bosnian Muslim males in Srebrenica, which is an irony because he, himself was born as a part of the Bosnian ethnic group.
You are looking at this sentence which is next to a photo of a war criminal, the Bosnian Serb leader Radon Karadzic. I couldn’t find his prison mugshot(remember the mugshot trend on TikTok? Me neither) on the internet, but that’s fine. The world’s most deadliest ethnic cleansing(synonymous to “genocide”) event is the Holocaust, which was led by the heavily infamous Adolf Hitler. It led to the deaths of over 6000000 Jews.
The motive was because of antisemitism, racism, and the egocentric view that German should be the only ethnicity on Earth as it is “superior”.
ᴄᴏɴɢʀᴀᴛ! ʏᴏᴜ ʜᴀᴠᴇ ᴏɪᴄɪᴀʟʟʏ ɪɴɪʜᴇᴅ ᴛʜᴇ ɴᴏᴛᴇ ᴏʀ ᴘᴀʀᴛ 1, ᴡʜɪᴄʜ ᴄᴏɴɪᴛ ᴏ ᴜɴɪᴛ ɪ, ɪɪ, & ɪɪɪ. ʏᴏᴜ ᴍᴜᴛ ᴇᴇʟ ᴀᴄᴄᴏᴍᴘʟɪʜᴇᴅ ᴏʀ ʙᴇɪɴɢ 60% ᴏ ᴛʜᴇ ᴡᴀʏ ᴀʟʀᴇᴀᴅʏ! ᴛᴀʏ ᴛᴜɴᴇᴅ ᴏɴ @ʙʀᴏᴡɴᴋɪɴʟᴇᴍᴏɴᴏᴠᴇʀɪᴄᴇ ’ ᴛɪᴋᴛᴏᴋ ᴘᴀɢᴇ ᴏʀ ᴜᴘᴅᴀᴛᴇ ᴏɴ ᴡʜᴇᴛʜᴇʀ ᴏʀ ɴᴏᴛ ᴘᴀʀᴛ ɪɪ(ᴜɴɪᴛ ɪᴠ ᴀɴᴅ ᴠ) ʜᴀ ʙᴇᴇɴ ʀᴇʟᴇᴀᴇᴅ ʏᴇᴛ, ᴀɴᴅ ɪ ɴᴇᴇᴅᴇᴅ(ᴜɴʟɪᴋᴇʟʏ ᴡᴏʀᴛ-ᴄᴀᴇ ᴄᴇɴᴀʀɪᴏ), ᴇᴇʟ ʀᴇᴇ ᴛᴏ ʀᴇᴍɪɴᴅ ʜɪᴍ ᴏɴ ᴛʜᴇ ᴄᴏᴍᴍᴇɴᴛ ᴇᴄᴛɪᴏɴ ᴏ ʜɪ ʀᴇᴄᴇɴᴛ ᴛɪᴋᴛᴏᴋ, ᴏʀ ᴇᴍᴀɪʟ ʜɪᴍ. ᴀʟᴏ ᴛᴀʏ ᴛᴜɴᴇᴅ ᴏʀ ᴛʜᴇ ᴀᴘ ᴍɪᴄʀᴏᴇᴄᴏɴᴏᴍɪᴄ ɪᴍᴘʟɪɪᴇᴅ ᴛᴜᴅʏ ᴘᴀᴄᴋᴀɢᴇ ᴏʀ ᴛʜᴇ 2020 ᴇxᴀᴍ ᴡʜɪᴄʜ ɪ ʟɪᴋᴇʟʏ ᴄᴏᴍɪɴɢ ᴏᴏɴ! From one test-taker to another, best of luck on that 5 ;P
